Go to the first, previous, next, last section, table of contents.


Names and Expressions

  1. The rules applicable to the different forms of name and expression, and to their evaluation, are given in this section.

Names

  1. Names can denote declared entities, whether declared explicitly or implicitly, see section Declarations. Names can also denote objects or subprograms designated by access values; the results of type_conversions or function_calls; subcomponents and slices of objects and values; protected subprograms, single entries, entry families, and entries in families of entries. Finally, names can denote attributes of any of the foregoing. Syntax
  2. name ::=
         direct_name          | explicit_dereference
       | indexed_component    | slice
       | selected_component   | attribute_reference
       | type_conversion      | function_call
       | character_literal
    
  3. direct_name ::= identifier | operator_symbol
    
  4. prefix ::= name | implicit_dereference
    
  5. explicit_dereference ::= name.all
    
  6. implicit_dereference ::= name
    
  7. Certain forms of name (indexed_components, selected_components, slices, and attributes) include a prefix that is either itself a name that denotes some related entity, or an implicit_dereference of an access value that designates some related entity. Name Resolution Rules
  8. The name in a dereference (either an implicit_dereference or an explicit_dereference) is expected to be of any access type. Static Semantics
  9. If the type of the name in a dereference is some access-to-object type T, then the dereference denotes a view of an object, the nominal subtype of the view being the designated subtype of T.
  10. If the type of the name in a dereference is some access-to-subprogram type S, then the dereference denotes a view of a subprogram, the profile of the view being the designated profile of S. Dynamic Semantics
  11. The evaluation of a name determines the entity denoted by the name. This evaluation has no other effect for a name that is a direct_name or a character_literal.
  12. The evaluation of a name that has a prefix includes the evaluation of the prefix. The evaluation of a prefix consists of the evaluation of the name or the implicit_dereference. The prefix denotes the entity denoted by the name or the implicit_dereference.
  13. The evaluation of a dereference consists of the evaluation of the name and the determination of the object or subprogram that is designated by the value of the name. A check is made that the value of the name is not the null access value. Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails. The dereference denotes the object or subprogram designated by the value of the name. Examples
  14. Examples of direct names:
  15. Pi      -- the direct name of a number            (see section Number Declarations)
    Limit   -- the direct name of a constant          (see section Object Declarations)
    Count   -- the direct name of a scalar variable   (see section Object Declarations)
    Board   -- the direct name of an array variable   (see section Index Constraints and Discrete Ranges)
    Matrix  -- the direct name of a type              (see section Array Types)
    Random  -- the direct name of a function          (see section Subprogram Declarations)
    Error   -- the direct name of an exception        (see section Exception Declarations)
    
  16. Examples of dereferences:
  17. Next_Car.all    --  explicit dereference denoting the object
                    --  designated by the access variable Next_Car,
                    --  see section Incomplete Type Declarations
    Next_Car.Owner  --  selected component with implicit dereference;
                    --  same as Next_Car.all.Owner
    

Indexed Components

  1. An indexed_component denotes either a component of an array or an entry in a family of entries. Syntax
  2. indexed_component ::= prefix(expression {, expression})
    
    Name Resolution Rules
  3. The prefix of an indexed_component with a given number of expressions shall resolve to denote an array (after any implicit dereference) with the corresponding number of index positions, or shall resolve to denote an entry family of a task or protected object (in which case there shall be only one expression).
  4. The expected type for each expression is the corresponding index type. Static Semantics
  5. When the prefix denotes an array, the indexed_component denotes the component of the array with the specified index value(s). The nominal subtype of the indexed_component is the component subtype of the array type.
  6. When the prefix denotes an entry family, the indexed_component denotes the individual entry of the entry family with the specified index value. Dynamic Semantics
  7. For the evaluation of an indexed_component, the prefix and the expressions are evaluated in an arbitrary order. The value of each expression is converted to the corresponding index type. A check is made that each index value belongs to the corresponding index range of the array or entry family denoted by the prefix. Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails. Examples
  8. Examples of indexed components:
  9. My_Schedule(Sat)
    --  a component of a one-dimensional array   (see see section Index Constraints and Discrete Ranges)
    
    Page(10)
    --  a component of a one-dimensional array   (see see section Array Types)
    
    Board(M, J + 1)
    --  a component of a two-dimensional array   (see see section Index Constraints and Discrete Ranges)
    
    Page(10)(20)
    --  a component of a component               (see see section Array Types)
    
    Request(Medium)
    --  an entry in a family of entries          (see see section Task Units and Task Objects)
    
    Next_Frame(L)(M, N)
    --  a component of a function call           (see see section Subprogram Declarations)
    
    NOTES
  10. (1) Notes on the examples: Distinct notations are used for components of multidimensional arrays (such as Board) and arrays of arrays (such as Page). The components of an array of arrays are arrays and can therefore be indexed. Thus Page(10)(20) denotes the 20th component of Page(10). In the last example Next_Frame(L) is a function call returning an access value that designates a two-dimensional array.

Slices

  1. A slice denotes a one-dimensional array formed by a sequence of consecutive components of a one-dimensional array. A slice of a variable is a variable; a slice of a constant is a constant; a slice of a value is a value. Syntax
  2. slice ::= prefix(discrete_range)
    
    Name Resolution Rules
  3. The prefix of a slice shall resolve to denote a one-dimensional array (after any implicit dereference).
  4. The expected type for the discrete_range of a slice is the index type of the array type. Static Semantics
  5. A slice denotes a one-dimensional array formed by the sequence of consecutive components of the array denoted by the prefix, corresponding to the range of values of the index given by the discrete_range.
  6. The type of the slice is that of the prefix. Its bounds are those defined by the discrete_range. Dynamic Semantics
  7. For the evaluation of a slice, the prefix and the discrete_range are evaluated in an arbitrary order. If the slice is not a null slice (a slice where the discrete_range is a null range), then a check is made that the bounds of the discrete_range belong to the index range of the array denoted by the prefix. Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails. NOTES
  8. (2) A slice is not permitted as the prefix of an Access attribute_reference, even if the components or the array as a whole are aliased. See section Operations of Access Types.
  9. (3) For a one-dimensional array A, the slice A(N .. N) denotes an array that has only one component; its type is the type of A. On the other hand, A(N) denotes a component of the array A and has the corresponding component type. Examples
  10. Examples of slices:
  11. Stars(1 .. 15)
    --  a slice of 15 characters         (see section String Types)
    
    Page(10 .. 10 + Size)
    --  a slice of 1 + Size components   (see section Array Types)
    
    Page(L)(A .. B)
    --  a slice of the array Page(L)     (see section Array Types)
    
    Stars(1 .. 0)
    --  a null slice                     (see section String Types)
    
    My_Schedule(Weekday)
    --  bounds given by subtype          (see section Index Constraints and Discrete Ranges, and section Enumeration Types)
    
    Stars(5 .. 15)(K)
    --  same as Stars(K)                 (see section String Types)
    --  provided that K is in 5 .. 15
    

Selected Components

  1. Selected_components are used to denote components (including discriminants), entries, entry families, and protected subprograms; they are also used as expanded names as described below. Syntax
  2. selected_component ::= prefix . selector_name
    
  3. selector_name ::= identifier | character_literal | operator_symbol
    
    Name Resolution Rules
  4. A selected_component is called an expanded name if, according to the visibility rules, at least one possible interpretation of its prefix denotes a package or an enclosing named construct (directly, not through a subprogram_renaming_declaration or generic_renaming_declaration).
  5. A selected_component that is not an expanded name shall resolve to denote one of the following:
    1. A component (including a discriminant):
      1. The prefix shall resolve to denote an object or value of some non-array composite type (after any implicit dereference). The selector_name shall resolve to denote a discriminant_specification of the type, or, unless the type is a protected type, a component_declaration of the type. The selected_component denotes the corresponding component of the object or value.
    1. A single entry, an entry family, or a protected subprogram:
      1. The prefix shall resolve to denote an object or value of some task or protected type (after any implicit dereference). The selector_name shall resolve to denote an entry_declaration or subprogram_declaration occurring (implicitly or explicitly) within the visible part of that type. The selected_component denotes the corresponding entry, entry family, or protected subprogram.
  1. An expanded name shall resolve to denote a declaration that occurs immediately within a named declarative region, as follows:
    1. The prefix shall resolve to denote either a package (including the current instance of a generic package, or a rename of a package), or an enclosing named construct.
    2. The selector_name shall resolve to denote a declaration that occurs immediately within the declarative region of the package or enclosing construct (the declaration shall be visible at the place of the expanded name -- see section Visibility.). The expanded name denotes that declaration.
    3. If the prefix does not denote a package, then it shall be a direct_name or an expanded name, and it shall resolve to denote a program unit (other than a package), the current instance of a type, a block_statement, a loop_statement, or an accept_statement (in the case of an accept_statement or entry_body, no family index is allowed); the expanded name shall occur within the declarative region of this construct. Further, if this construct is a callable construct and the prefix denotes more than one such enclosing callable construct, then the expanded name is ambiguous, independently of the selector_name.

Dynamic Semantics

  1. The evaluation of a selected_component includes the evaluation of the prefix.
  2. For a selected_component that denotes a component of a variant, a check is made that the values of the discriminants are such that the value or object denoted by the prefix has this component. The exception Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails. Examples
  3. Examples of selected components:
  4. Tomorrow.Month
    --  a record component                    (see section Record Types)
    
    Next_Car.Owner
    --  a record component                    (see section Incomplete Type Declarations)
    
    Next_Car.Owner.Age
    --  a record component                    (see section Incomplete Type Declarations)
    --  the previous two lines involve implicit dereferences
    
    Writer.Unit
    --  a record component (a discriminant)   (see section Variant Parts and Discrete Choices)
    
    Min_Cell(H).Value
    --  a record component of the result      (see section Subprogram Declarations)
    --  of the function call Min_Cell(H)
    
    Control.Seize
    --  an entry of a protected object        (see section Protected Units and Protected Objects)
    
    Pool(K).Write
    --  an entry of the task Pool(K)          (see section Protected Units and Protected Objects)
    
  5. Examples of expanded names:
  6. Key_Manager."<"
    --  an operator of the visible part of a package   (see section Private Operations)
    
    Dot_Product.Sum
    --  a variable declared in a function body         (see section Subprogram Declarations)
    
    Buffer.Pool
    --  a variable declared in a protected unit        (see section Example of Tasking and Synchronization)
    
    Buffer.Read
    --  an entry of a protected unit                   (see section Example of Tasking and Synchronization)
    
    Swap.Temp
    --  a variable declared in a block statement       (see section Block Statements)
    
    Standard.Boolean
    --  the name of a predefined type                  (see section The Package Standard)
    

Attributes

  1. An attribute is a characteristic of an entity that can be queried via an attribute_reference or a range_attribute_reference. Syntax
  2. attribute_reference ::= prefix'attribute_designator
    
  3. attribute_designator ::=
         identifier[(static_expression)]
       | Access | Delta | Digits
    
  4. range_attribute_reference ::= prefix'range_attribute_designator
    
  5. range_attribute_designator ::= Range[(static_expression)]
    
    Name Resolution Rules
  6. In an attribute_reference, if the attribute_designator is for an attribute defined for (at least some) objects of an access type, then the prefix is never interpreted as an implicit_dereference; otherwise (and for all range_attribute_references), if the type of the name within the prefix is of an access type, the prefix is interpreted as an implicit_dereference. Similarly, if the attribute_designator is for an attribute defined for (at least some) functions, then the prefix is never interpreted as a parameterless function_call; otherwise (and for all range_attribute_references), if the prefix consists of a name that denotes a function, it is interpreted as a parameterless function_call.
  7. The expression, if any, in an attribute_designator or range_attribute_designator is expected to be of any integer type. Legality Rules
  8. The expression, if any, in an attribute_designator or range_attribute_designator shall be static. Static Semantics
  9. An attribute_reference denotes a value, an object, a subprogram, or some other kind of program entity.
  10. A range_attribute_reference X'Range(N) is equivalent to the range X'First(N) .. X'Last(N), except that the prefix is only evaluated once. Similarly, X'Range is equivalent to X'First .. X'Last, except that the prefix is only evaluated once. Dynamic Semantics
  11. The evaluation of an attribute_reference (or range_attribute_reference) consists of the evaluation of the prefix. Implementation Permissions
  12. An implementation may provide implementation-defined attributes; the identifier for an implementation-defined attribute shall differ from those of the language-defined attributes. NOTES
  13. (4) Attributes are defined throughout this International Standard, and are summarized in section Language-Defined Attributes (informative).
  14. (5) In general, the name in a prefix of an attribute_reference (or a range_attribute_reference) has to be resolved without using any context. However, in the case of the Access attribute, the expected type for the prefix has to be a single access type, and if it is an access-to-subprogram type, see section Operations of Access Types, then the resolution of the name can use the fact that the profile of the callable entity denoted by the prefix has to be type conformant with the designated profile of the access type. Examples
  15. Examples of attributes:
  16. Color'First
    -- minimum value of the enumeration type Color    (see section Enumeration Types)
    
    Rainbow'Base'First
    -- same as Color'First                            (see section Enumeration Types)
    
    Real'Digits
    -- precision of the type Real                     (see section Floating Point Types)
    
    Board'Last(2)
    -- upper bound of the second dimension of Board   (see section Index Constraints and Discrete Ranges)
    
    Board'Range(1)
    -- index range of the first dimension of Board    (see section Index Constraints and Discrete Ranges)
    
    Pool(K)'Terminated
    -- True if task Pool(K) is terminated             (see section Task Units and Task Objects)
    
    Date'Size
    -- number of bits for records of type Date        (see section Record Types)
    
    Message'Address
    -- address of the record variable Message         (see section Discriminant Constraints)
    

Literals

  1. A literal represents a value literally, that is, by means of notation suited to its kind. A literal is either a numeric_literal, a character_literal, the literal null, or a string_literal. Name Resolution Rules
  2. The expected type for a literal null shall be a single access type.
  3. For a name that consists of a character_literal, either its expected type shall be a single character type, in which case it is interpreted as a parameterless function_call that yields the corresponding value of the character type, or its expected profile shall correspond to a parameterless function with a character result type, in which case it is interpreted as the name of the corresponding parameterless function declared as part of the character type's definition, see section Enumeration Types. In either case, the character_literal denotes the enumeration_literal_specification.
  4. The expected type for a primary that is a string_literal shall be a single string type. Legality Rules
  5. A character_literal that is a name shall correspond to a defining_character_literal of the expected type, or of the result type of the expected profile.
  6. For each character of a string_literal with a given expected string type, there shall be a corresponding defining_character_literal of the component type of the expected string type.
  7. A literal null shall not be of an anonymous access type, since such types do not have a null value, see section Access Types. Static Semantics
  8. An integer literal is of type universal_integer. A real literal is of type universal_real. Dynamic Semantics
  9. The evaluation of a numeric literal, or the literal null, yields the represented value.
  10. The evaluation of a string_literal that is a primary yields an array value containing the value of each character of the sequence of characters of the string_literal, as defined in section String Literals. The bounds of this array value are determined according to the rules for positional_array_aggregates See section Array Aggregates, except that for a null string literal, the upper bound is the predecessor of the lower bound.
  11. For the evaluation of a string_literal of type T, a check is made that the value of each character of the string_literal belongs to the component subtype of T. For the evaluation of a null string literal, a check is made that its lower bound is greater than the lower bound of the base range of the index type. The exception Constraint_Error is raised if either of these checks fails. NOTES
  12. (6) Enumeration literals that are identifiers rather than character_literals follow the normal rules for identifiers when used in a name, see section Names, and section Selected Components. Character_literals used as selector_names follow the normal rules for expanded names, see section Selected Components. Examples
  13. Examples of literals:
  14. 3.14159_26536    --  a real literal
    1_345            --  an integer literal
    'A'              --  a character literal
    "Some Text"      --  a string literal
    

Aggregates

  1. An aggregate combines component values into a composite value of an array type, record type, or record extension. Syntax
  2. aggregate ::=
       record_aggregate | extension_aggregate | array_aggregate
    
    Name Resolution Rules
  3. The expected type for an aggregate shall be a single nonlimited array type, record type, or record extension. Legality Rules
  4. An aggregate shall not be of a class-wide type. Dynamic Semantics
  5. For the evaluation of an aggregate, an anonymous object is created and values for the components or ancestor part are obtained (as described in the subsequent subclause for each kind of the aggregate) and assigned into the corresponding components or ancestor part of the anonymous object. Obtaining the values and the assignments occur in an arbitrary order. The value of the aggregate is the value of this object.
  6. If an aggregate is of a tagged type, a check is made that its value belongs to the first subtype of the type. Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails.

Record Aggregates

  1. In a record_aggregate, a value is specified for each component of the record or record extension value, using either a named or a positional association. Syntax
  2. record_aggregate ::= (record_component_association_list)
    
  3. record_component_association_list ::=
         record_component_association {, record_component_association}
       | null record
    
  4. record_component_association ::=
       [ component_choice_list => ] expression
    
  5. component_choice_list ::=
         component_selector_name {| component_selector_name}
       | others
    
    1. A record_component_association is a named component association if it has a component_choice_list; otherwise, it is a positional component association. Any positional component associations shall precede any named component associations. If there is a named association with a component_choice_list of others, it shall come last.
    2. In the record_component_association_list for a record_aggregate, if there is only one association, it shall be a named association.

Name Resolution Rules

  1. The expected type for a record_aggregate shall be a single nonlimited record type or record extension.
  2. For the record_component_association_list of a record_aggregate, all components of the composite value defined by the aggregate are needed; for the association list of an extension_aggregate, only those components not determined by the ancestor expression or subtype are needed, see section Extension Aggregates. Each selector_name in a record_component_association shall denote a needed component (including possibly a discriminant).
  3. The expected type for the expression of a record_component_association is the type of the associated component(s); the associated component(s) are as follows:
    1. For a positional association, the component (including possibly a discriminant) in the corresponding relative position (in the declarative region of the type), counting only the needed components;
    2. For a named association with one or more component_selector_names, the named component(s);
    3. For a named association with the reserved word others, all needed components that are not associated with some previous association.

Legality Rules

  1. If the type of a record_aggregate is a record extension, then it shall be a descendant of a record type, through one or more record extensions (and no private extensions).
  2. If there are no components needed in a given record_component_association_list, then the reserved words null record shall appear rather than a list of record_component_associations.
  3. Each record_component_association shall have at least one associated component, and each needed component shall be associated with exactly one record_component_association. If a record_component_association has two or more associated components, all of them shall be of the same type.
  4. If the components of a variant_part are needed, then the value of a discriminant that governs the variant_part shall be given by a static expression. Dynamic Semantics
  5. The evaluation of a record_aggregate consists of the evaluation of the record_component_association_list.
  6. For the evaluation of a record_component_association_list, any per-object constraints, see section Record Types, for components specified in the association list are elaborated and any expressions are evaluated and converted to the subtype of the associated component. Any constraint elaborations and expression evaluations (and conversions) occur in an arbitrary order, except that the expression for a discriminant is evaluated (and converted) prior to the elaboration of any per-object constraint that depends on it, which in turn occurs prior to the evaluation and conversion of the expression for the component with the per-object constraint.
  7. The expression of a record_component_association is evaluated (and converted) once for each associated component. NOTES
  8. (7) For a record_aggregate with positional associations, expressions specifying discriminant values appear first since the known_discriminant_part is given first in the declaration of the type; they have to be in the same order as in the known_discriminant_part. Examples
  9. Example of a record aggregate with positional associations:
  10. (4, July, 1776)  --  see section Record Types
    
  11. Examples of record aggregates with named associations:
  12. (Day => 4, Month => July, Year => 1776)
    (Month => July, Day => 4, Year => 1776)
    
  13. (Disk, Closed, Track => 5, Cylinder => 12)  --  see section Variant Parts and Discrete Choices
    (Unit => Disk, Status => Closed, Cylinder => 9, Track => 1)
    
  14. Example of component association with several choices:
  15. (Value => 0, Succ|Pred => new Cell'(0, null, null))
    --  see section Incomplete Type Declarations
    
  16. --  The allocator is evaluated twice:
    --  Succ and Pred designate different cells
    
  17. Examples of record aggregates for tagged types, see section Tagged Types and Type Extensions, and section Type Extensions
  18. Expression'(null record)
    Literal'(Value => 0.0)
    Painted_Point'(0.0, Pi/2.0, Paint => Red)
    

Extension Aggregates

  1. An extension_aggregate specifies a value for a type that is a record extension by specifying a value or subtype for an ancestor of the type, followed by associations for any components not determined by the ancestor_part. Syntax
  2. extension_aggregate ::=
       (ancestor_part with record_component_association_list)
    
  3. ancestor_part ::= expression | subtype_mark
    
    Name Resolution Rules
  4. The expected type for an extension_aggregate shall be a single nonlimited type that is a record extension. If the ancestor_part is an expression, it is expected to be of any nonlimited tagged type. Legality Rules
  5. If the ancestor_part is a subtype_mark, it shall denote a specific tagged subtype. The type of the extension_aggregate shall be derived from the type of the ancestor_part, through one or more record extensions (and no private extensions). Static Semantics
  6. For the record_component_association_list of an extension_aggregate, the only components needed are those of the composite value defined by the aggregate that are not inherited from the type of the ancestor_part, plus any inherited discriminants if the ancestor_part is a subtype_mark that denotes an unconstrained subtype. Dynamic Semantics
  7. For the evaluation of an extension_aggregate, the record_component_association_list is evaluated. If the ancestor_part is an expression, it is also evaluated; if the ancestor_part is a subtype_mark, the components of the value of the aggregate not given by the record_component_association_list are initialized by default as for an object of the ancestor type. Any implicit initializations or evaluations are performed in an arbitrary order, except that the expression for a discriminant is evaluated prior to any other evaluation or initialization that depends on it.
  8. If the type of the ancestor_part has discriminants that are not inherited by the type of the extension_aggregate, then, unless the ancestor_part is a subtype_mark that denotes an unconstrained subtype, a check is made that each discriminant of the ancestor has the value specified for a corresponding discriminant, either in the record_component_association_list, or in the derived_type_definition for some ancestor of the type of the extension_aggregate. Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails. NOTES
  9. (8) If all components of the value of the extension_aggregate are determined by the ancestor_part, then the record_component_association_list is required to be simply null record.
  10. (9) If the ancestor_part is a subtype_mark, then its type can be abstract. If its type is controlled, then as the last step of evaluating the aggregate, the Initialize procedure of the ancestor type is called, unless the Initialize procedure is abstract, see section User-Defined Assignment and Finalization. Examples
  11. Examples of extension aggregates (for types defined in section Type Extensions.):
  12. Painted_Point'(Point with Red)
    (Point'(P) with Paint => Black)
    
  13. (Expression with Left => 1.2, Right => 3.4)
    Addition'(Binop with null record)
    -- presuming Binop is of type Binary_Operation
    

Array Aggregates

  1. In an array_aggregate, a value is specified for each component of an array, either positionally or by its index. For a positional_array_aggregate, the components are given in increasing-index order, with a final others, if any, representing any remaining components. For a named_array_aggregate, the components are identified by the values covered by the discrete_choices. Syntax
  2. array_aggregate ::=
       positional_array_aggregate | named_array_aggregate
    
  3. positional_array_aggregate ::=
         (expression, expression {, expression})
       | (expression {, expression}, others => expression)
    
  4. named_array_aggregate ::=
       (array_component_association {, array_component_association})
    
  5. array_component_association ::=
       discrete_choice_list => expression
    
  6. An n-dimensional array_aggregate is one that is written as n levels of nested array_aggregates (or at the bottom level, equivalent string_literals). For the multidimensional case (n >= 2) the array_aggregates (or equivalent string_literals) at the n-1 lower levels are called subaggregates of the enclosing n-dimensional array_aggregate. The expressions of the bottom level subaggregates (or of the array_aggregate itself if one-dimensional) are called the array component expressions of the enclosing n-dimensional array_aggregate. Name Resolution Rules
  7. The expected type for an array_aggregate (that is not a subaggregate) shall be a single nonlimited array type. The component type of this array type is the expected type for each array component expression of the array_aggregate.
  8. The expected type for each discrete_choice in any discrete_choice_list of a named_array_aggregate is the type of the corresponding index; the corresponding index for an array_aggregate that is not a subaggregate is the first index of its type; for an (n-m)-dimensional subaggregate within an array_aggregate of an n-dimensional type, the corresponding index is the index in position m+1. Legality Rules
  9. An array_aggregate of an n-dimensional array type shall be written as an n-dimensional array_aggregate.
  10. An others choice is allowed for an array_aggregate only if an applicable index constraint applies to the array_aggregate. An applicable index constraint is a constraint provided by certain contexts where an array_aggregate is permitted that can be used to determine the bounds of the array value specified by the aggregate. Each of the following contexts (and none other) defines an applicable index constraint:
    1. For an explicit_actual_parameter, an explicit_generic_actual_parameter, the expression of a return_statement, the initialization expression in an object_declaration, or a default_expression (for a parameter or a component), when the nominal subtype of the corresponding formal parameter, generic formal parameter, function result, object, or component is a constrained array subtype, the applicable index constraint is the constraint of the subtype;
    2. For the expression of an assignment_statement where the name denotes an array variable, the applicable index constraint is the constraint of the array variable;
    3. For the operand of a qualified_expression whose subtype_mark denotes a constrained array subtype, the applicable index constraint is the constraint of the subtype;
    4. For a component expression in an aggregate, if the component's nominal subtype is a constrained array subtype, the applicable index constraint is the constraint of the subtype;
    5. For a parenthesized expression, the applicable index constraint is that, if any, defined for the expression.
  1. The applicable index constraint applies to an array_aggregate that appears in such a context, as well as to any subaggregates thereof. In the case of an explicit_actual_parameter (or default_expression) for a call on a generic formal subprogram, no applicable index constraint is defined.
  2. The discrete_choice_list of an array_component_association is allowed to have a discrete_choice that is a nonstatic expression or that is a discrete_range that defines a nonstatic or null range, only if it is the single discrete_choice of its discrete_choice_list, and there is only one array_component_association in the array_aggregate.
  3. In a named_array_aggregate with more than one discrete_choice, no two discrete_choices are allowed to cover the same value, see section Variant Parts and Discrete Choices, if there is no others choice, the discrete_choices taken together shall exactly cover a contiguous sequence of values of the corresponding index type.
  4. A bottom level subaggregate of a multidimensional array_aggregate of a given array type is allowed to be a string_literal only if the component type of the array type is a character type; each character of such a string_literal shall correspond to a defining_character_literal of the component type. Static Semantics
  5. A subaggregate that is a string_literal is equivalent to one that is a positional_array_aggregate of the same length, with each expression being the character_literal for the corresponding character of the string_literal. Dynamic Semantics
  6. The evaluation of an array_aggregate of a given array type proceeds in two steps:
    1. Any discrete_choices of this aggregate and of its subaggregates are evaluated in an arbitrary order, and converted to the corresponding index type;
    2. The array component expressions of the aggregate are evaluated in an arbitrary order and their values are converted to the component subtype of the array type; an array component expression is evaluated once for each associated component.
  1. The bounds of the index range of an array_aggregate (including a subaggregate) are determined as follows:
    1. For an array_aggregate with an others choice, the bounds are those of the corresponding index range from the applicable index constraint;
    2. For a positional_array_aggregate (or equivalent string_literal) without an others choice, the lower bound is that of the corresponding index range in the applicable index constraint, if defined, or that of the corresponding index subtype, if not; in either case, the upper bound is determined from the lower bound and the number of expressions (or the length of the string_literal);
    3. For a named_array_aggregate without an others choice, the bounds are determined by the smallest and largest index values covered by any discrete_choice_list.
  1. For an array_aggregate, a check is made that the index range defined by its bounds is compatible with the corresponding index subtype.
  2. For an array_aggregate with an others choice, a check is made that no expression is specified for an index value outside the bounds determined by the applicable index constraint.
  3. For a multidimensional array_aggregate, a check is made that all subaggregates that correspond to the same index have the same bounds.
  4. The exception Constraint_Error is raised if any of the above checks fail. NOTES
  5. (10) In an array_aggregate, positional notation may only be used with two or more expressions; a single expression in parentheses is interpreted as a parenthesized_expression. A named_array_aggregate, such as (1 => X), may be used to specify an array with a single component. Examples
  6. Examples of array aggregates with positional associations:
  7. (7, 9, 5, 1, 3, 2, 4, 8, 6, 0)
    Table'(5, 8, 4, 1, others => 0)  --  see section Array Types
    
  8. Examples of array aggregates with named associations:
  9. (1 .. 5 => (1 .. 8 => 0.0))  --  two-dimensional
    (1 .. N => new Cell)         --  N new cells, in particular for N = 0
    
  10. Table'(2 | 4 | 10 => 1, others => 0)
    
    Schedule'(Mon .. Fri => True,  others => False)
    Schedule'(Wed | Sun  => False, others => True)
    --  see section Array Types
    
    Vector'(1 => 2.5)
    --  single-component vector
    
  11. Examples of two-dimensional array aggregates:
  12. -- Three aggregates for the same value of subtype
    --  Matrix(1..2,1..3), see section Array Types
    
  13. ((1.1, 1.2, 1.3), (2.1, 2.2, 2.3))
    (1 => (1.1, 1.2, 1.3), 2 => (2.1, 2.2, 2.3))
    (1 => (1 => 1.1, 2 => 1.2, 3 => 1.3),
      2 => (1 => 2.1, 2 => 2.2, 3 => 2.3))
    
  14. Examples of aggregates as initial values:
  15. A : Table := (7, 9, 5, 1, 3, 2, 4, 8, 6, 0);
    -- A(1)=7, A(10)=0
    
    B : Table := (2 | 4 | 10 => 1, others => 0);
    -- B(1)=0, B(10)=1
    
    C : constant Matrix := (1 .. 5 => (1 .. 8 => 0.0));
    -- C'Last(1)=5, C'Last(2)=8
    
  16. D : Bit_Vector(M .. N) := (M .. N => True);  --  see section Array Types
    E : Bit_Vector(M .. N) := (others => True);
    F : String(1 .. 1) := (1 => 'F');
    -- a one component aggregate: same as "F"
    

Expressions

  1. An expression is a formula that defines the computation or retrieval of a value. In this International Standard, the term "expression" refers to a construct of the syntactic category expression or of any of the other five syntactic categories defined below. Syntax
  2. expression ::=
         relation {and relation} | relation {and then relation}
       | relation {or relation}  | relation {or else relation}
       | relation {xor relation}
    
  3. relation ::=
         simple_expression [relational_operator simple_expression]
       | simple_expression [not] in range
       | simple_expression [not] in subtype_mark
    
  4. simple_expression ::=
       [unary_adding_operator] term {binary_adding_operator term}
    
  5. term ::= factor {multiplying_operator factor}
    
  6. factor ::= primary [** primary] | abs primary | not primary
    
  7. primary ::=
         numeric_literal   | null
       | string_literal    | aggregate
       | name              | qualified_expression
       | allocator         | (expression)
    
    Name Resolution Rules
  8. A name used as a primary shall resolve to denote an object or a value. Static Semantics
  9. Each expression has a type; it specifies the computation or retrieval of a value of that type. Dynamic Semantics
  10. The value of a primary that is a name denoting an object is the value of the object. Implementation Permissions
  11. For the evaluation of a primary that is a name denoting an object of an unconstrained numeric subtype, if the value of the object is outside the base range of its type, the implementation may either raise Constraint_Error or return the value of the object. Examples
  12. Examples of primaries:
  13. 4.0                --  real literal
    Pi                 --  named number
    (1 .. 10 => 0)     --  array aggregate
    Sum                --  variable
    Integer'Last       --  attribute
    Sine(X)            --  function call
    Color'(Blue)       --  qualified expression
    Real(M*N)          --  conversion
    (Line_Count + 10)  --  parenthesized expression
    
  14. Examples of expressions:
  15. Volume                      -- primary
    not Destroyed               -- factor
    2*Line_Count                -- term
    -4.0                        -- simple expression
    -4.0 + A                    -- simple expression
    B**2 - 4.0*A*C              -- simple expression
    Password(1 .. 3) = "Bwv"    -- relation
    Count in Small_Int          -- relation
    Count not in Small_Int      -- relation
    Index = 0 or Item_Hit       -- expression
    (Cold and Sunny) or Warm    -- expression (parentheses are required)
    A**(B**C)                   -- expression (parentheses are required)
    

Operators and Expression Evaluation

  1. The language defines the following six categories of operators (given in order of increasing precedence). The corresponding operator_symbols, and only those, can be used as designators in declarations of functions for user-defined operators. See section Overloading of Operators. Syntax
  2. logical_operator            ::=  and | or  | xor
    
  3. relational_operator         ::=  =   | /=  | <   | <= | > | >=
    
  4. binary_adding_operator      ::=  +   | -   | &
    
  5. unary_adding_operator       ::=  +   | -
    
  6. multiplying_operator        ::=  *   | /   | mod | rem
    
  7. highest_precedence_operator ::=  **  | abs | not
    
    Static Semantics
  8. For a sequence of operators of the same precedence level, the operators are associated with their operands in textual order from left to right. Parentheses can be used to impose specific associations.
  9. For each form of type definition, certain of the above operators are predefined; that is, they are implicitly declared immediately after the type definition. For each such implicit operator declaration, the parameters are called Left and Right for binary operators; the single parameter is called Right for unary operators. An expression of the form X op Y, where op is a binary operator, is equivalent to a function_call of the form "op"(X, Y). An expression of the form op Y, where op is a unary operator, is equivalent to a function_call of the form "op"(Y). The predefined operators and their effects are described in subclauses section Logical Operators and Short-circuit Control Forms through section Highest Precedence Operators. Dynamic Semantics
  10. The predefined operations on integer types either yield the mathematically correct result or raise the exception Constraint_Error. For implementations that support the Numerics Annex, the predefined operations on real types yield results whose accuracy is defined in See section Numerics (normative), or raise the exception Constraint_Error. Implementation Requirements
  11. The implementation of a predefined operator that delivers a result of an integer or fixed point type may raise Constraint_Error only if the result is outside the base range of the result type.
  12. The implementation of a predefined operator that delivers a result of a floating point type may raise Constraint_Error only if the result is outside the safe range of the result type. Implementation Permissions
  13. For a sequence of predefined operators of the same precedence level (and in the absence of parentheses imposing a specific association), an implementation may impose any association of the operators with operands so long as the result produced is an allowed result for the left-to-right association, but ignoring the potential for failure of language-defined checks in either the left-to-right or chosen order of association. NOTES
  14. (11) The two operands of an expression of the form X op Y, where op is a binary operator, are evaluated in an arbitrary order, as for any function_call, see section Subprogram Calls. Examples
  15. Examples of precedence:
  16. not Sunny or Warm    --  same as (not Sunny) or Warm
    X > 4.0 and Y > 0.0  --  same as (X > 4.0) and (Y > 0.0)
    
  17. -4.0*A**2            --  same as -(4.0 * (A**2))
    abs(1 + A) + B       --  same as (abs (1 + A)) + B
    Y**(-3)              --  parentheses are necessary
    A / B * C            --  same as (A/B)*C
    A + (B + C)          --  evaluate B + C before adding it to A
    

Logical Operators and Short-circuit Control Forms

Name Resolution Rules

  1. An expression consisting of two relations connected by and then or or else (a short-circuit control form) shall resolve to be of some boolean type; the expected type for both relations is that same boolean type. Static Semantics
  2. The following logical operators are predefined for every boolean type T, for every modular type T, and for every one-dimensional array type T whose component type is a boolean type:
  3. function "and"(Left, Right : T) return T
    function "or" (Left, Right : T) return T
    function "xor"(Left, Right : T) return T
    
  4. For boolean types, the predefined logical operators and, or, and xor perform the conventional operations of conjunction, inclusive disjunction, and exclusive disjunction, respectively.
  5. For modular types, the predefined logical operators are defined on a bit-by-bit basis, using the binary representation of the value of the operands to yield a binary representation for the result, where zero represents False and one represents True. If this result is outside the base range of the type, a final subtraction by the modulus is performed to bring the result into the base range of the type.
  6. The logical operators on arrays are performed on a component-by-component basis on matching components (as for equality -- See section Relational Operators and Membership Tests.), using the predefined logical operator for the component type. The bounds of the resulting array are those of the left operand. Dynamic Semantics
  7. The short-circuit control forms and then and or else deliver the same result as the corresponding predefined and and or operators for boolean types, except that the left operand is always evaluated first, and the right operand is not evaluated if the value of the left operand determines the result.
  8. For the logical operators on arrays, a check is made that for each component of the left operand there is a matching component of the right operand, and vice versa. Also, a check is made that each component of the result belongs to the component subtype. The exception Constraint_Error is raised if either of the above checks fails. NOTES
  9. (12) The conventional meaning of the logical operators is given by the following truth table:
  10. A      B      (A and B)  (A or B)  (A xor B)
    
    True   True     True       True      False
    True   False    False      True      True
    False  True     False      True      True
    False  False    False      False     False
    
    Examples
  11. Examples of logical operators:
  12. Sunny or Warm
    Filter(1 .. 10) and Filter(15 .. 24)   --  see section Index Constraints and Discrete Ranges
    
  13. Examples of short-circuit control forms:
  14. Next_Car.Owner /= null and then Next_Car.Owner.Age > 25
    --  see section Incomplete Type Declarations
    
    N = 0 or else A(N) = Hit_Value
    

Relational Operators and Membership Tests

  1. The equality operators = (equals) and /= (not equals) are predefined for nonlimited types. The other relational_operators are the ordering operators < (less than), <= (less than or equal), > (greater than), and >= (greater than or equal). The ordering operators are predefined for scalar types, and for discrete array types, that is, one-dimensional array types whose components are of a discrete type.
  2. A membership test, using in or not in, determines whether or not a value belongs to a given subtype or range, or has a tag that identifies a type that is covered by a given type. Membership tests are allowed for all types. Name Resolution Rules
  3. The tested type of a membership test is the type of the range or the type determined by the subtype_mark. If the tested type is tagged, then the simple_expression shall resolve to be of a type that covers or is covered by the tested type; if untagged, the expected type for the simple_expression is the tested type. Legality Rules
  4. For a membership test, if the simple_expression is of a tagged class-wide type, then the tested type shall be (visibly) tagged. Static Semantics
  5. The result type of a membership test is the predefined type Boolean.
  6. The equality operators are predefined for every specific type T that is not limited, and not an anonymous access type, with the following specifications:
  7. function "=" (Left, Right : T) return Boolean
    function "/="(Left, Right : T) return Boolean
    
  8. The ordering operators are predefined for every specific scalar type T, and for every discrete array type T, with the following specifications:
  9. function "<" (Left, Right : T) return Boolean
    function "<="(Left, Right : T) return Boolean
    function ">" (Left, Right : T) return Boolean
    function ">="(Left, Right : T) return Boolean
    
    Dynamic Semantics
  10. For discrete types, the predefined relational operators are defined in terms of corresponding mathematical operations on the position numbers of the values of the operands.
  11. For real types, the predefined relational operators are defined in terms of the corresponding mathematical operations on the values of the operands, subject to the accuracy of the type.
  12. Two access-to-object values are equal if they designate the same object, or if both are equal to the null value of the access type.
  13. Two access-to-subprogram values are equal if they are the result of the same evaluation of an Access attribute_reference, or if both are equal to the null value of the access type. Two access-to-subprogram values are unequal if they designate different subprograms. It is unspecified whether two access values that designate the same subprogram but are the result of distinct evaluations of Access attribute_references are equal or unequal.
  14. For a type extension, predefined equality is defined in terms of the primitive (possibly user-defined) equals operator of the parent type and of any tagged components of the extension part, and predefined equality for any other components not inherited from the parent type.
  15. For a private type, if its full type is tagged, predefined equality is defined in terms of the primitive equals operator of the full type; if the full type is untagged, predefined equality for the private type is that of its full type.
  16. For other composite types, the predefined equality operators (and certain other predefined operations on composite types -- see section Logical Operators and Short-circuit Control Forms, and section Type Conversions.) are defined in terms of the corresponding operation on matching components, defined as follows:
    1. For two composite objects or values of the same non-array type, matching components are those that correspond to the same component_declaration or discriminant_specification;
    2. For two one-dimensional arrays of the same type, matching components are those (if any) whose index values match in the following sense: the lower bounds of the index ranges are defined to match, and the successors of matching indices are defined to match;
    3. For two multidimensional arrays of the same type, matching components are those whose index values match in successive index positions.
  1. The analogous definitions apply if the types of the two objects or values are convertible, rather than being the same.
  2. Given the above definition of matching components, the result of the predefined equals operator for composite types (other than for those composite types covered earlier) is defined as follows:
    1. If there are no components, the result is defined to be True;
    2. If there are unmatched components, the result is defined to be False;
    3. Otherwise, the result is defined in terms of the primitive equals operator for any matching tagged components, and the predefined equals for any matching untagged components.
  1. The predefined "/=" operator gives the complementary result to the predefined "=" operator.
  2. For a discrete array type, the predefined ordering operators correspond to lexicographic order using the predefined order relation of the component type: A null array is lexicographically less than any array having at least one component. In the case of nonnull arrays, the left operand is lexicographically less than the right operand if the first component of the left operand is less than that of the right; otherwise the left operand is lexicographically less than the right operand only if their first components are equal and the tail of the left operand is lexicographically less than that of the right (the tail consists of the remaining components beyond the first and can be null).
  3. For the evaluation of a membership test, the simple_expression and the range (if any) are evaluated in an arbitrary order.
  4. A membership test using in yields the result True if:
    1. The tested type is scalar, and the value of the simple_expression belongs to the given range, or the range of the named subtype; or
    2. The tested type is not scalar, and the value of the simple_ expression satisfies any constraints of the named subtype, and, if the type of the simple_expression is class-wide, the value has a tag that identifies a type covered by the tested type.
  1. Otherwise the test yields the result False.
  2. A membership test using not in gives the complementary result to the corresponding membership test using in. NOTES
  3. (13) No exception is ever raised by a membership test, by a predefined ordering operator, or by a predefined equality operator for an elementary type, but an exception can be raised by the evaluation of the operands. A predefined equality operator for a composite type can only raise an exception if the type has a tagged part whose primitive equals operator propagates an exception.
  4. (14) If a composite type has components that depend on discriminants, two values of this type have matching components if and only if their discriminants are equal. Two nonnull arrays have matching components if and only if the length of each dimension is the same for both. Examples
  5. Examples of expressions involving relational operators and membership tests:
  6. X /= Y
    
  7. "" < "A" and "A" < "Aa"     --  True
    "Aa" < "B" and "A" < "A  "  --  True
    
  8. My_Car = null
    -- true if My_Car has been set to null  (see section Incomplete Type Declarations)
    
    My_Car = Your_Car
    -- true if we both share the same car
    
    My_Car.all = Your_Car.all
    -- true if the two cars are identical
    
  9. N not in 1 .. 10
    -- range membership test
    
    Today in Mon .. Fri
    -- range membership test
    
    Today in Weekday
    -- subtype membership test  (see section Enumeration Types)
    
    Archive in Disk_Unit
    -- subtype membership test, see section Variant Parts and Discrete Choices
    
    Tree.all in Addition'Class
    -- class membership test  (see section Type Extensions)
    

Binary Adding Operators

Static Semantics

  1. The binary adding operators + (addition) and - (subtraction) are predefined for every specific numeric type T with their conventional meaning. They have the following specifications:
  2. function "+"(Left, Right : T) return T
    function "-"(Left, Right : T) return T
    
  3. The concatenation operators & are predefined for every nonlimited, one-dimensional array type T with component type C. They have the following specifications:
  4. function "&"(Left : T; Right : T) return T
    function "&"(Left : T; Right : C) return T
    function "&"(Left : C; Right : T) return T
    function "&"(Left : C; Right : C) return T
    
    Dynamic Semantics
  5. For the evaluation of a concatenation with result type T, if both operands are of type T, the result of the concatenation is a one-dimensional array whose length is the sum of the lengths of its operands, and whose components comprise the components of the left operand followed by the components of the right operand. If the left operand is a null array, the result of the concatenation is the right operand. Otherwise, the lower bound of the result is determined as follows:
    1. If the ultimate ancestor of the array type was defined by a constrained_array_definition, then the lower bound of the result is that of the index subtype;
    2. If the ultimate ancestor of the array type was defined by an unconstrained_array_definition, then the lower bound of the result is that of the left operand.
  1. The upper bound is determined by the lower bound and the length. A check is made that the upper bound of the result of the concatenation belongs to the range of the index subtype, unless the result is a null array. Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails.
  2. If either operand is of the component type C, the result of the concatenation is given by the above rules, using in place of such an operand an array having this operand as its only component (converted to the component subtype) and having the lower bound of the index subtype of the array type as its lower bound.
  3. The result of a concatenation is defined in terms of an assignment to an anonymous object, as for any function call, see section Return Statements. NOTES
  4. (15) As for all predefined operators on modular types, the binary adding operators + and - on modular types include a final reduction modulo the modulus if the result is outside the base range of the type. Examples
  5. Examples of expressions involving binary adding operators:
  6. Z + 0.1
    --  Z has to be of a real type
    
  7. "A" & "BCD"
    --  concatenation of two string literals
    
    'A' & "BCD"
    --  concatenation of a character literal and a string literal
    
    'A' & 'A'
    --  concatenation of two character literals
    

Unary Adding Operators

Static Semantics

  1. The unary adding operators + (identity) and - (negation) are predefined for every specific numeric type T with their conventional meaning. They have the following specifications:
  2. function "+"(Right : T) return T
    function "-"(Right : T) return T
    
    NOTES
  3. (16) For modular integer types, the unary adding operator -, when given a nonzero operand, returns the result of subtracting the value of the operand from the modulus; for a zero operand, the result is zero.

Multiplying Operators

Static Semantics

  1. The multiplying operators * (multiplication), / (division), mod (modulus), and rem (remainder) are predefined for every specific integer type T:
  2. function "*"  (Left, Right : T) return T
    function "/"  (Left, Right : T) return T
    function "mod"(Left, Right : T) return T
    function "rem"(Left, Right : T) return T
    
  3. Signed integer multiplication has its conventional meaning.
  4. Signed integer division and remainder are defined by the relation:
  5. A = (A/B)*B + (A rem B)
    
  6. where (A rem B) has the sign of A and an absolute value less than the absolute value of B. Signed integer division satisfies the identity:
  7. (-A)/B = -(A/B) = A/(-B)
    
  8. The signed integer modulus operator is defined such that the result of A mod B has the sign of B and an absolute value less than the absolute value of B; in addition, for some signed integer value N, this result satisfies the relation:
  9. A = B*N + (A mod B)
    
  10. The multiplying operators on modular types are defined in terms of the corresponding signed integer operators, followed by a reduction modulo the modulus if the result is outside the base range of the type (which is only possible for the "*" operator).
  11. Multiplication and division operators are predefined for every specific floating point type T:
  12. function "*"(Left, Right : T) return T
    function "/"(Left, Right : T) return T
    
  13. The following multiplication and division operators, with an operand of the predefined type Integer, are predefined for every specific fixed point type T:
  14. function "*"(Left : T; Right : Integer) return T
    function "*"(Left : Integer; Right : T) return T
    function "/"(Left : T; Right : Integer) return T
    
  15. All of the above multiplying operators are usable with an operand of an appropriate universal numeric type. The following additional multiplying operators for root_real are predefined, and are usable when both operands are of an appropriate universal or root numeric type, and the result is allowed to be of type root_real, as in a number_declaration:
  16. function "*"(Left, Right : root_real) return root_real
    function "/"(Left, Right : root_real) return root_real
    
  17. function "*"(Left : root_real; Right : root_integer) return root_real
    function "*"(Left : root_integer; Right : root_real) return root_real
    function "/"(Left : root_real; Right : root_integer) return root_real
    
  18. Multiplication and division between any two fixed point types are provided by the following two predefined operators:
  19. function "*"(Left, Right : universal_fixed) return universal_fixed
    function "/"(Left, Right : universal_fixed) return universal_fixed
    
    Legality Rules
  20. The above two fixed-fixed multiplying operators shall not be used in a context where the expected type for the result is itself universal_fixed -- the context has to identify some other numeric type to which the result is to be converted, either explicitly or implicitly. Dynamic Semantics
  21. The multiplication and division operators for real types have their conventional meaning. For floating point types, the accuracy of the result is determined by the precision of the result type. For decimal fixed point types, the result is truncated toward zero if the mathematical result is between two multiples of the small of the specific result type (possibly determined by context); for ordinary fixed point types, if the mathematical result is between two multiples of the small, it is unspecified which of the two is the result.
  22. The exception Constraint_Error is raised by integer division, rem, and mod if the right operand is zero. Similarly, for a real type T with T'Machine_Overflows True, division by zero raises Constraint_Error. NOTES
  23. (17) For positive A and B, A/B is the quotient and A rem B is the remainder when A is divided by B. The following relations are satisfied by the rem operator:
  24.   A  rem (-B) =   A rem B
    (-A) rem   B  = -(A rem B)
    
  25. (18) For any signed integer K, the following identity holds:
  26.   A mod B   =   (A + K*B) mod B
    
  27. The relations between signed integer division, remainder, and modulus are illustrated by the following table:
  28.   A    B  A/B  A rem B  A mod B    A   B  A/B  A rem B  A mod B
    
  29.   10   5   2      0        0      -10  5   -2     0        0
      11   5   2      1        1      -11  5   -2    -1        4
      12   5   2      2        2      -12  5   -2    -2        3
      13   5   2      3        3      -13  5   -2    -3        2
      14   5   2      4        4      -14  5   -2    -4        1
    
  30.   A    B  A/B  A rem B  A mod B    A   B  A/B  A rem B  A mod B
      10  -5   -2     0        0      -10 -5    2     0        0
      11  -5   -2     1       -4      -11 -5    2    -1       -1
      12  -5   -2     2       -3      -12 -5    2    -2       -2
      13  -5   -2     3       -2      -13 -5    2    -3       -3
      14  -5   -2     4       -1      -14 -5    2    -4       -4
    
    Examples
  31. Examples of expressions involving multiplying operators:
  32. I : Integer := 1;
    J : Integer := 2;
    K : Integer := 3;
    
  33. X : Real := 1.0;       --  see section Floating Point Types
    Y : Real := 2.0;
    
  34. F : Fraction := 0.25;  --  see section Fixed Point Types
    G : Fraction := 0.5;
    
  35. Expression     Value  Result Type
    
    I*J            2      same as I and J, that is, Integer
    K/J            1      same as K and J, that is, Integer
    K mod J        1      same as K and J, that is, Integer
    
    X/Y            0.5    same as X and Y, that is, Real
    F/2            0.125  same as F, that is, Fraction
    
    3*F            0.75   same as F, that is, Fraction
    0.75*G         0.375  universal_fixed, implicitly convertible
                          to any fixed point type
    Fraction(F*G)  0.125  Fraction, as stated by the conversion
    Real(J)*Y      4.0    Real, the type of both operands after
                          conversion of J
    

Highest Precedence Operators

Static Semantics

  1. The highest precedence unary operator abs (absolute value) is predefined for every specific numeric type T, with the following specification:
  2. function "abs"(Right : T) return T
    
  3. The highest precedence unary operator not (logical negation) is predefined for every boolean type T, every modular type T, and for every one-dimensional array type T whose components are of a boolean type, with the following specification:
  4. function "not"(Right : T) return T
    
  5. The result of the operator not for a modular type is defined as the difference between the high bound of the base range of the type and the value of the operand. For a binary modulus, this corresponds to a bit-wise complement of the binary representation of the value of the operand.
  6. The operator not that applies to a one-dimensional array of boolean components yields a one-dimensional boolean array with the same bounds; each component of the result is obtained by logical negation of the corresponding component of the operand (that is, the component that has the same index value). A check is made that each component of the result belongs to the component subtype; the exception Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails.
  7. The highest precedence exponentiation operator ** is predefined for every specific integer type T with the following specification:
  8. function "**"(Left : T; Right : Natural) return T
    
  9. Exponentiation is also predefined for every specific floating point type as well as root_real, with the following specification (where T is root_real or the floating point type):
  10. function "**"(Left : T; Right : Integer'Base) return T
    
  11. The right operand of an exponentiation is the exponent. The expression X**N with the value of the exponent N positive is equivalent to the expression X*X*...X (with N-1 multiplications) except that the multiplications are associated in an arbitrary order. With N equal to zero, the result is one. With the value of N negative (only defined for a floating point operand), the result is the reciprocal of the result using the absolute value of N as the exponent. Implementation Permissions
  12. The implementation of exponentiation for the case of a negative exponent is allowed to raise Constraint_Error if the intermediate result of the repeated multiplications is outside the safe range of the type, even though the final result (after taking the reciprocal) would not be. (The best machine approximation to the final result in this case would generally be 0.0.) NOTES
  13. (19) As implied by the specification given above for exponentiation of an integer type, a check is made that the exponent is not negative. Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails.

Type Conversions

  1. Explicit type conversions, both value conversions and view conversions, are allowed between closely related types as defined below. This clause also defines rules for value and view conversions to a particular subtype of a type, both explicit ones and those implicit in other constructs. Syntax
  2. type_conversion ::=
         subtype_mark(expression)
       | subtype_mark(name)
    
  3. The target subtype of a type_conversion is the subtype denoted by the subtype_mark. The operand of a type_conversion is the expression or name within the parentheses; its type is the operand type.
  4. One type is convertible to a second type if a type_conversion with the first type as operand type and the second type as target type is legal according to the rules of this clause. Two types are convertible if each is convertible to the other.
  5. A type_conversion whose operand is the name of an object is called a view conversion if its target type is tagged, or if it appears as an actual parameter of mode out or in out; other type_conversions are called value conversions. Name Resolution Rules
  6. The operand of a type_conversion is expected to be of any type.
  7. The operand of a view conversion is interpreted only as a name; the operand of a value conversion is interpreted as an expression. Legality Rules
  8. If the target type is a numeric type, then the operand type shall be a numeric type.
  9. If the target type is an array type, then the operand type shall be an array type. Further:
    1. The types shall have the same dimensionality;
    2. Corresponding index types shall be convertible; and
    3. The component subtypes shall statically match.
  1. If the target type is a general access type, then the operand type shall be an access-to-object type. Further:
    1. If the target type is an access-to-variable type, then the operand type shall be an access-to-variable type;
    2. If the target designated type is tagged, then the operand designated type shall be convertible to the target designated type;
    3. If the target designated type is not tagged, then the designated types shall be the same, and either the designated subtypes shall statically match or the target designated subtype shall be discriminated and unconstrained; and
    4. The accessibility level of the operand type shall not be statically deeper than that of the target type. In addition to the places where Legality Rules normally apply, see section Generic Instantiation, this rule applies also in the private part of an instance of a generic unit.
  1. If the target type is an access-to-subprogram type, then the operand type shall be an access-to-subprogram type. Further:
    1. The designated profiles shall be subtype-conformant.
    2. The accessibility level of the operand type shall not be statically deeper than that of the target type. In addition to the places where Legality Rules normally apply, see section Generic Instantiation, this rule applies also in the private part of an instance of a generic unit. If the operand type is declared within a generic body, the target type shall be declared within the generic body.
  1. If the target type is not included in any of the above four cases, there shall be a type that is an ancestor of both the target type and the operand type. Further, if the target type is tagged, then either:
    1. The operand type shall be covered by or descended from the target type; or
    2. The operand type shall be a class-wide type that covers the target type.
  1. In a view conversion for an untagged type, the target type shall be convertible (back) to the operand type. Static Semantics
  2. A type_conversion that is a value conversion denotes the value that is the result of converting the value of the operand to the target subtype.
  3. A type_conversion that is a view conversion denotes a view of the object denoted by the operand. This view is a variable of the target type if the operand denotes a variable; otherwise it is a constant of the target type.
  4. The nominal subtype of a type_conversion is its target subtype. Dynamic Semantics
  5. For the evaluation of a type_conversion that is a value conversion, the operand is evaluated, and then the value of the operand is converted to a corresponding value of the target type, if any. If there is no value of the target type that corresponds to the operand value, Constraint_Error is raised; this can only happen on conversion to a modular type, and only when the operand value is outside the base range of the modular type. Additional rules follow:
    1. Numeric Type Conversion
      1. If the target and the operand types are both integer types, then the result is the value of the target type that corresponds to the same mathematical integer as the operand.
      2. If the target type is a decimal fixed point type, then the result is truncated (toward 0) if the value of the operand is not a multiple of the small of the target type.
      3. If the target type is some other real type, then the result is within the accuracy of the target type (see section Numeric Performance Requirements, for implementations that support the Numerics Annex).
      4. If the target type is an integer type and the operand type is real, the result is rounded to the nearest integer (away from zero if exactly halfway between two integers).
    1. Enumeration Type Conversion
      1. The result is the value of the target type with the same position number as that of the operand value.
    1. Array Type Conversion
      1. If the target subtype is a constrained array subtype, then a check is made that the length of each dimension of the value of the operand equals the length of the corresponding dimension of the target subtype. The bounds of the result are those of the target subtype.
      2. If the target subtype is an unconstrained array subtype, then the bounds of the result are obtained by converting each bound of the value of the operand to the corresponding index type of the target type. For each nonnull index range, a check is made that the bounds of the range belong to the corresponding index subtype.
      3. In either array case, the value of each component of the result is that of the matching component of the operand value, see section Relational Operators and Membership Tests.
    1. Composite (Non-Array) Type Conversion
      1. The value of each nondiscriminant component of the result is that of the matching component of the operand value.
      2. The tag of the result is that of the operand. If the operand type is class-wide, a check is made that the tag of the operand identifies a (specific) type that is covered by or descended from the target type.
      3. For each discriminant of the target type that corresponds to a discriminant of the operand type, its value is that of the corresponding discriminant of the operand value; if it corresponds to more than one discriminant of the operand type, a check is made that all these discriminants are equal in the operand value.
      4. For each discriminant of the target type that corresponds to a discriminant that is specified by the derived_type_definition for some ancestor of the operand type (or if class-wide, some ancestor of the specific type identified by the tag of the operand), its value in the result is that specified by the derived_type_definition.
      5. For each discriminant of the operand type that corresponds to a discriminant that is specified by the derived_type_definition for some ancestor of the target type, a check is made that in the operand value it equals the value specified for it.
      6. For each discriminant of the result, a check is made that its value belongs to its subtype.
    1. Access Type Conversion
      1. For an access-to-object type, a check is made that the accessibility level of the operand type is not deeper than that of the target type.
      2. If the target type is an anonymous access type, a check is made that the value of the operand is not null; if the target is not an anonymous access type, then the result is null if the operand value is null.
      3. If the operand value is not null, then the result designates the same object (or subprogram) as is designated by the operand value, but viewed as being of the target designated subtype (or profile); any checks associated with evaluating a conversion to the target designated subtype are performed.
  1. After conversion of the value to the target type, if the target subtype is constrained, a check is performed that the value satisfies this constraint.
  2. For the evaluation of a view conversion, the operand name is evaluated, and a new view of the object denoted by the operand is created, whose type is the target type; if the target type is composite, checks are performed as above for a value conversion.
  3. The properties of this new view are as follows:
    1. If the target type is composite, the bounds or discriminants (if any) of the view are as defined above for a value conversion; each nondiscriminant component of the view denotes the matching component of the operand object; the subtype of the view is constrained if either the target subtype or the operand object is constrained, or if the operand type is a descendant of the target type, and has discriminants that were not inherited from the target type;
    2. If the target type is tagged, then an assignment to the view assigns to the corresponding part of the object denoted by the operand; otherwise, an assignment to the view assigns to the object, after converting the assigned value to the subtype of the object (which might raise Constraint_Error);
    3. Reading the value of the view yields the result of converting the value of the operand object to the target subtype (which might raise Constraint_Error), except if the object is of an access type and the view conversion is passed as an out parameter; in this latter case, the value of the operand object is used to initialize the formal parameter without checking against any constraint of the target subtype, See section Parameter Associations.
  1. If an Accessibility_Check fails, Program_Error is raised. Any other check associated with a conversion raises Constraint_Error if it fails.
  2. Conversion to a type is the same as conversion to an unconstrained subtype of the type. NOTES
  3. (20) In addition to explicit type_conversions, type conversions are performed implicitly in situations where the expected type and the actual type of a construct differ, as is permitted by the type resolution rules, see section The Context of Overload Resolution. For example, an integer literal is of the type universal_integer, and is implicitly converted when assigned to a target of some specific integer type. Similarly, an actual parameter of a specific tagged type is implicitly converted when the corresponding formal parameter is of a class-wide type.
  4. Even when the expected and actual types are the same, implicit subtype conversions are performed to adjust the array bounds (if any) of an operand to match the desired target subtype, or to raise Constraint_Error if the (possibly adjusted) value does not satisfy the constraints of the target subtype.
  5. (21) A ramification of the overload resolution rules is that the operand of an (explicit) type_conversion cannot be the literal null, an allocator, an aggregate, a string_literal, a character_literal, or an attribute_reference for an Access or Unchecked_Access attribute. Similarly, such an expression enclosed by parentheses is not allowed. A qualified_expression, see section Qualified Expressions, can be used instead of such a type_conversion.
  6. (22) The constraint of the target subtype has no effect for a type_conversion of an elementary type passed as an out parameter. Hence, it is recommended that the first subtype be specified as the target to minimize confusion (a similar recommendation applies to renaming and generic formal in out objects). Examples
  7. Examples of numeric type conversion:
  8. Real(2*J)      --  value is converted to floating point
    Integer(1.6)   --  value is 2
    Integer(-0.4)  --  value is 0
    
  9. Example of conversion between derived types:
  10. type A_Form is new B_Form;
    
  11. X : A_Form;
    Y : B_Form;
    
  12. X := A_Form(Y);
    Y := B_Form(X);  --  the reverse conversion
    
  13. Examples of conversions between array types:
  14. type Sequence is array (Integer range <>) of Integer;
    subtype Dozen is Sequence(1 .. 12);
    Ledger : array(1 .. 100) of Integer;
    
  15. Sequence(Ledger)            --  bounds are those of Ledger
    Sequence(Ledger(31 .. 42))  --  bounds are 31 and 42
    Dozen(Ledger(31 .. 42))     --  bounds are those of Dozen
    

Qualified Expressions

  1. A qualified_expression is used to state explicitly the type, and to verify the subtype, of an operand that is either an expression or an aggregate. Syntax
  2. qualified_expression ::=
       subtype_mark'(expression) | subtype_mark'aggregate
    
    Name Resolution Rules
  3. The operand (the expression or aggregate) shall resolve to be of the type determined by the subtype_mark, or a universal type that covers it. Dynamic Semantics
  4. The evaluation of a qualified_expression evaluates the operand (and if of a universal type, converts it to the type determined by the subtype_mark) and checks that its value belongs to the subtype denoted by the subtype_mark. The exception Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails. NOTES
  5. (23) When a given context does not uniquely identify an expected type, a qualified_expression can be used to do so. In particular, if an overloaded name or aggregate is passed to an overloaded subprogram, it might be necessary to qualify the operand to resolve its type. Examples
  6. Examples of disambiguating expressions using qualification:
  7. type Mask is (Fix, Dec, Exp, Signif);
    type Code is (Fix, Cla, Dec, Tnz, Sub);
    
  8. Print (Mask'(Dec));  --  Dec is of type Mask
    Print (Code'(Dec));  --  Dec is of type Code
    
  9. for J in Code'(Fix) .. Code'(Dec) loop ...
    -- qualification needed for either Fix or Dec
    
    for J in Code range Fix .. Dec loop ...
    -- qualification unnecessary
    
    for J in Code'(Fix) .. Dec loop ...
    -- qualification unnecessary for Dec
    
  10. Dozen'(1 | 3 | 5 | 7 => 2, others => 0) --  see section Type Conversions
    

Allocators

  1. The evaluation of an allocator creates an object and yields an access value that designates the object. Syntax
  2. allocator ::=
       new subtype_indication | new qualified_expression
    
    Name Resolution Rules
  3. The expected type for an allocator shall be a single access-to-object type whose designated type covers the type determined by the subtype_mark of the subtype_indication or qualified_expression. Legality Rules
  4. An initialized allocator is an allocator with a qualified_expression. An uninitialized allocator is one with a subtype_indication. In the subtype_indication of an uninitialized allocator, a constraint is permitted only if the subtype_mark denotes an unconstrained composite subtype; if there is no constraint, then the subtype_mark shall denote a definite subtype.
  5. If the type of the allocator is an access-to-constant type, the allocator shall be an initialized allocator. If the designated type is limited, the allocator shall be an uninitialized allocator. Static Semantics
  6. If the designated type of the type of the allocator is elementary, then the subtype of the created object is the designated subtype. If the designated type is composite, then the created object is always constrained; if the designated subtype is constrained, then it provides the constraint of the created object; otherwise, the object is constrained by its initial value (even if the designated subtype is unconstrained with defaults). Dynamic Semantics
  7. For the evaluation of an allocator, the elaboration of the subtype_indication or the evaluation of the qualified_expression is performed first. For the evaluation of an initialized allocator, an object of the designated type is created and the value of the qualified_expression is converted to the designated subtype and assigned to the object.
  8. For the evaluation of an uninitialized allocator:
    1. If the designated type is elementary, an object of the designated subtype is created and any implicit initial value is assigned;
    2. If the designated type is composite, an object of the designated type is created with tag, if any, determined by the subtype_mark of the subtype_indication; any per-object constraints on subcomponents are elaborated and any implicit initial values for the subcomponents of the object are obtained as determined by the subtype_indication and assigned to the corresponding subcomponents. A check is made that the value of the object belongs to the designated subtype. Constraint_Error is raised if this check fails. This check and the initialization of the object are performed in an arbitrary order.
  1. If the created object contains any tasks, they are activated, See section Task Execution - Task Activation. Finally, an access value that designates the created object is returned. NOTES
  2. (24) Allocators cannot create objects of an abstract type. See section Abstract Types and Subprograms.
  3. (25) If any part of the created object is controlled, the initialization includes calls on corresponding Initialize or Adjust procedures. See section User-Defined Assignment and Finalization.
  4. (26) As explained in section Storage Management, the storage for an object allocated by an allocator comes from a storage pool (possibly user defined). The exception Storage_Error is raised by an allocator if there is not enough storage. Instances of Unchecked_Deallocation may be used to explicitly reclaim storage.
  5. (27) Implementations are permitted, but not required, to provide garbage collection, see section Pragma Controlled. Examples
  6. Examples of allocators:
  7. new Cell'(0, null, null)
    -- initialized explicitly, see section Incomplete Type Declarations
    
    new Cell'(Value => 0, Succ => null, Pred => null)
    -- initialized explicitly
    
    new Cell
    -- not initialized
    
  8. new Matrix(1 .. 10, 1 .. 20)
    -- the bounds only are given
    
    new Matrix'(1 .. 10 => (1 .. 20 => 0.0))
    -- initialized explicitly
    
  9. new Buffer(100)
    -- the discriminant only is given
    
    new Buffer'(Size => 80, Pos => 0, Value => (1 .. 80 => 'A'))
    -- initialized explicitly
    
  10. Expr_Ptr'(new Literal)
    -- allocator for access-to-class-wide type, see section Type Extensions
    
    Expr_Ptr'(new Literal'(Expression with 3.5))
    -- initialized explicitly
    

Static Expressions and Static Subtypes

  1. Certain expressions of a scalar or string type are defined to be static. Similarly, certain discrete ranges are defined to be static, and certain scalar and string subtypes are defined to be static subtypes. Static means determinable at compile time, using the declared properties or values of the program entities.
  2. A static expression is a scalar or string expression that is one of the following:
    1. a numeric_literal;
    2. a string_literal of a static string subtype;
    3. a name that denotes the declaration of a named number or a static constant;
    4. a function_call whose function_name or function_prefix statically denotes a static function, and whose actual parameters, if any (whether given explicitly or by default), are all static expressions;
    5. an attribute_reference that denotes a scalar value, and whose prefix denotes a static scalar subtype;
    6. an attribute_reference whose prefix statically denotes a statically constrained array object or array subtype, and whose attribute_designator is First, Last, or Length, with an optional dimension;
    7. a type_conversion whose subtype_mark denotes a static scalar subtype, and whose operand is a static expression;
    8. a qualified_expression whose subtype_mark denotes a static (scalar or string) subtype, and whose operand is a static expression;
    9. a membership test whose simple_expression is a static expression, and whose range is a static range or whose subtype_mark denotes a static (scalar or string) subtype;
    10. a short-circuit control form both of whose relations are static expressions;
    11. a static expression enclosed in parentheses.
  1. A name statically denotes an entity if it denotes the entity and:
    1. It is a direct_name, expanded name, or character_literal, and it denotes a declaration other than a renaming_declaration; or
    2. It is an attribute_reference whose prefix statically denotes some entity; or
    3. It denotes a renaming_declaration with a name that statically denotes the renamed entity.
  1. A static function is one of the following:
    1. a predefined operator whose parameter and result types are all scalar types none of which are descendants of formal scalar types;
    2. a predefined concatenation operator whose result type is a string type;
    3. an enumeration literal;
    4. a language-defined attribute that is a function, if the prefix denotes a static scalar subtype, and if the parameter and result types are scalar.
  1. In any case, a generic formal subprogram is not a static function.
  2. A static constant is a constant view declared by a full constant declaration or an object_renaming_declaration with a static nominal subtype, having a value defined by a static scalar expression or by a static string expression whose value has a length not exceeding the maximum length of a string_literal in the implementation.
  3. A static range is a range whose bounds are static expressions, or a range_attribute_reference that is equivalent to such a range. A static discrete_range is one that is a static range or is a subtype_indication that defines a static scalar subtype. The base range of a scalar type is a static range, unless the type is a descendant of a formal scalar type.
  4. A static subtype is either a static scalar subtype or a static string subtype. A static scalar subtype is an unconstrained scalar subtype whose type is not a descendant of a formal scalar type, or a constrained scalar subtype formed by imposing a compatible static constraint on a static scalar subtype. A static string subtype is an unconstrained string subtype whose index subtype and component subtype are static (and whose type is not a descendant of a formal array type), or a constrained string subtype formed by imposing a compatible static constraint on a static string subtype. In any case, the subtype of a generic formal object of mode in out, and the result subtype of a generic formal function, are not static.
  5. The different kinds of static constraint are defined as follows:
    1. A null constraint is always static;
    2. A scalar constraint is static if it has no range_constraint, or one with a static range;
    3. An index constraint is static if each discrete_range is static, and each index subtype of the corresponding array type is static;
    4. A discriminant constraint is static if each expression of the constraint is static, and the subtype of each discriminant is static.
  1. A subtype is statically constrained if it is constrained, and its constraint is static. An object is statically constrained if its nominal subtype is statically constrained, or if it is a static string constant. Legality Rules
  2. A static expression is evaluated at compile time except when it is part of the right operand of a static short-circuit control form whose value is determined by its left operand. This evaluation is performed exactly, without performing Overflow_Checks. For a static expression that is evaluated:
    1. The expression is illegal if its evaluation fails a language-defined check other than Overflow_Check.
    2. If the expression is not part of a larger static expression, then its value shall be within the base range of its expected type. Otherwise, the value may be arbitrarily large or small.
    3. If the expression is of type universal_real and its expected type is a decimal fixed point type, then its value shall be a multiple of the small of the decimal type.
  1. The last two restrictions above do not apply if the expected type is a descendant of a formal scalar type (or a corresponding actual type in an instance). Implementation Requirements
  2. For a real static expression that is not part of a larger static expression, and whose expected type is not a descendant of a formal scalar type, the implementation shall round or truncate the value (according to the Machine_Rounds attribute of the expected type) to the nearest machine number of the expected type; if the value is exactly half-way between two machine numbers, any rounding shall be performed away from zero. If the expected type is a descendant of a formal scalar type, no special rounding or truncating is required -- normal accuracy rules apply, see section Numerics (normative). NOTES
  3. (28) An expression can be static even if it occurs in a context where staticness is not required.
  4. (29) A static (or run-time) type_conversion from a real type to an integer type performs rounding. If the operand value is exactly half-way between two integers, the rounding is performed away from zero. Examples
  5. Examples of static expressions:
  6. 1 + 1       -- 2
    abs(-10)*3  -- 30
    
  7. Kilo : constant := 1000;
    Mega : constant := Kilo*Kilo;   -- 1_000_000
    Long : constant := Float'Digits*2;
    
  8. Half_Pi    : constant := Pi/2;
    --  see section Number Declarations.
    
    Deg_To_Rad : constant := Half_Pi/90;
    
    Rad_To_Deg : constant := 1.0/Deg_To_Rad;
    -- equivalent to 1.0/((3.14159_26536/2)/90)
    

Statically Matching Constraints and Subtypes

Static Semantics

  1. A constraint statically matches another constraint if both are null constraints, both are static and have equal corresponding bounds or discriminant values, or both are nonstatic and result from the same elaboration of a constraint of a subtype_indication or the same evaluation of a range of a discrete_subtype_definition.
  2. A subtype statically matches another subtype of the same type if they have statically matching constraints. Two anonymous access subtypes statically match if their designated subtypes statically match.
  3. Two ranges of the same type statically match if both result from the same evaluation of a range, or if both are static and have equal corresponding bounds.
  4. A constraint is statically compatible with a scalar subtype if it statically matches the constraint of the subtype, or if both are static and the constraint is compatible with the subtype. A constraint is statically compatible with an access or composite subtype if it statically matches the constraint of the subtype, or if the subtype is unconstrained. One subtype is statically compatible with a second subtype if the constraint of the first is statically compatible with the second subtype.


Go to the first, previous, next, last section, table of contents.